Written by Linda Sorensen

Global Studies 420:  Ecological Revolutions Defined

Submitted to Professor Julia Klimova

August 4, 2001

 

 

 

“Why are the Coral Reefs of Southeast Asia Threatened?”

 

 

The coral reefs of the world have existed for between 200 and 450 million years and are considered to be home to “the most biologically diverse marine ecosystems on the earth” (All About Coral, 1).  Corals grow slowly and in order for them to thrive in the oceans in which they live, a delicate balance needs to be maintained between them and the other forms of sea life that coexist within their marine environment.  People also depend on this delicate balance between Coral and other sea life to make their livings and to have food to eat.  Commercial fishing provides food for the local communities, while collecting shells and dead coral provide trinkets to sell for profit.  The fact is that for the past 10,000 years, corals have been able to grow and exist in harmony within their highly diverse surroundings.  The World Resources Institute reports that, “Southeast Asia contains one-quarter of the world's mapped reefs. Indonesia and the Philippines account for a major portion of these habitats. Reefs in both countries are noted for extraordinarily high levels of diversity, each containing at least 2,500 species of fish,” (World Resources Institute, 1998).   However, recently, due to over fishing, pollution, coastal land development, increased population, and other human contact, along with the environmental, geological and geographical changes that have occurred through deforestation and modern agricultural practices, an ecological revolution has caused the coral reefs to be threatened and risk destruction.  An ecological revolution, as explained by Carolyn Merchant, is “a major and usually rapid change in the relationship between humans and the environment which is/was a consequence of human actions and interventions” (National University, 2001).  The threat of reef destruction is especially true for Southeast Asia, which is the hardest hit area.  It is reported that 80 percent of the reefs in Southeast Asia are threatened (World Resources Institute, 1998).  “If the present rate of destruction continues, 70 percent of the world's coral reefs will be destroyed within the next few decades” (Solcomhouse, 1).  This paper will describe the makeup of the great coral reefs and how they function.  It will show that human interaction with the coral reefs of Southeast Asia has brought devastating ecological change and threatened the existence of these useful specimens of marine life.  Then the paper will explain these changes, and it will also show how they affect the future existence of our marine ecosystem, which in turn affects the future existence of humans.  Finally, this paper will show that in order for the coral reefs to continue to exist, positive measures that have recently been taken need to be continued and new ones need to be developed, in order to preserve them so that this negative ecological change can be reversed, and the coral reefs of Southeast Asia can once again thrive.

 

Coral reefs have been referred to as the tropical rainforests of the ocean and are considered to be “the greatest expression of ocean life” that exists (Lazaroff, 1).  They “are biological wonders (and are) among the largest and oldest living communities of plants and animals on earth” (Hinrichsen, 2).  Coral communities are mainly formations of calcium carbonate or limestone that have been secreted from little living organisms called polyps that live within the reef structures.  These polyps are transparent and have tiny soft bodies.  They live in a symbiotic relationship with unicellular algae called zooxanthellae, in which the algae join with coral and “conduct photosynthesis, and process the coral’s waste products all within the cells of their host” (Web - What is a Coral Reef?, 1992).  Within this symbiotic relationship, a perfect balance of “light, temperature, water clarity, salinity and oxygen” needs to be maintained in order for the coral to grow and be productive (Web - What is a Coral Reef?, 1992).  As the polyps function properly, they become master architects, as they construct intricate multi-leveled structures that become home to a large diversity of different species of the sea.  They build upon the foundations of intricate work left by their dead ancestors.  A variety of reef fish and other marine life are able to share space within these coral structures.  Those creatures that forage at night are able to take up residency in their space during the day, while those that forage during the day, share the same space at night (Hinrichsen, 3).  Thus the reefs are able to house two separate populations of marine life within a single coral structure.

 

There are three main types of reef formation, the fringe reef, the barrier reef, and the atoll.  Fringing reefs surround an island in a circular formation that run parallel to the coastline, and as the island gradually sinks through tectonic movement caused by sea-floor spreading, or the great weight of the island pulling itself downward, the reefs grow larger (Moss, 1995).  These reefs are in the first stage of reef development and are usually no further than 1500 meters from the shore (Coleman & Schectel, “Types of Coral Reefs,” 1).  Barrier reefs are formed as the land continues to sink, thus pushing the reefs further out to sea.  At this point, they are considered to be in the “second stage of reef development” (Coleman & Schectel, “Types of Coral Reefs,” 2).  Atoll reefs are in the third or last stage of development and have grown in a circular formation around the sinking land, to the point that they are actually higher than the land they have surrounded and form a lagoon (Coleman & Schectel, “Types of Coral Reefs,” 2).  Atolls range in size from one mile to five hundred miles in diameter (Neville, 1999).  They are also called coral islands (Moss, 1995).  A fourth and final type of reef formation not alluded to above, would be the patch reef formation that “exist(s) in shallow waters on continental shelves and can be in any stage of reef development (Neville, 1999).  The reefs of Southeast Asia are made up of all four of these types of reef formation, with the patch reefs in shallow waters, the fringe reefs hugging the coastline, the barrier reefs offshore in the continental margins, and the atoll reefs which are scattered throughout the surrounding sea area (Neville, 1999).

 

The coral reefs of Southeast Asia are made up of many different sizes and shapes of corals.  They are divided into two separate types of coral, hard and soft.  The hard corals have a rigid external surface called corallites that protects them, while the soft corals have no protective surface and are able to sway with the movement of the water.  The hard corals are the ones that are the reef builders, while the soft corals add variety to the marine ecosystem that surrounds the coral reefs.  Some species of hard coral are the staghorn or elkhorn coral, star coral, pillar coral, and brain coral.  Some of the soft corals are sea fan, sea whip, and sea feathers.  These corals are surrounded by mangroves and sea grasses, that filter and trap food for the community of sea life that lives within the coral cities.  These mangroves and sea grasses also “stabilize the shoreline and filter pollutants from the land base,” and their existence is vital for the survival of those creatures that live in and around the coral community (All About Coral, 1).

 

The vast biodiversity of coral reef marine life and the reefs themselves have provided the people of Southeast Asia with many benefits.   The Evergreen Project states that, “because of warm water and abundant food supply, coral reef communities are bustling with life”  (“Why do so many fish live near coral reefs?”).  This abundant marine life is what attracts people to the reefs.  There are many economic benefits provided to the local communities by the coral reef systems.  There is abundant fishing to be enjoyed by both local and commercial fishermen.  “They can select from a wide variety of marine animals, such as: clams, crabs, eels, fish, lobsters, mussels, octopus, oysters, scallops, sharks, shrimp, and squid” (Coleman & Schectel, “Benefits of Coral Reefs”).  This provides a food commodity for those who buy and sell from the local fish markets in the Philippines, Taiwan, Indonesia, and other parts of Southeast Asia.  There are beautiful corals to draw scuba-diving tourists, sponges that grow in the reef communities are harvested for sale in the markets, and dead coral pieces are also harvested for sale to tourists.  Benefits for the ecosystem provided by the coral reefs like those in Southeast Asia, to their local communities are, the protection from erosion that is provided to the coastlines, and the prevention of sand-loss from the beaches (Coleman & Schectel, “Benefits of Coral Reefs”).  Benefits to science offered by coral reefs, are that the marine life that lives in and around the reefs “holds the potential for new chemicals, new medicines, unlocking new mysteries” of science, says Former U.S. President Bill Clinton (Solcomhouse, 1). We can see that our planet benefits greatly from a healthy coral reef ecosystem, and these benefits are not only for the local communities, but for each individual in the entire world.

 

As stated earlier, the current coral reefs in Southeast Asia have been able to exist and grow happily during the past 5,000 to 10,000 years, as new coral has continuously formed over dead existing coral (Hinrichsen, 3).  However, in the early 1980s, changes started taking place in the coral reefs of Southeast Asia.  A combination of different external factors contributed to the degradation of the marine environment and brought destruction to many parts of the reefs.  These factors, which were mainly influenced by increased human activity in the reef area, included practices such as, over-fishing, cyanide fishing, blast fishing, scuba diving, boat activity, anchor damage, runoff from improperly treated sewage, and runoff from fertilizers, pesticides, and other chemicals (Threats, 1999).  The increase in human activity was caused by an increase in human population and an increase in tourist activity.

Increased population in Southeast Asia has, of course, increased all marine activities that are performed in and around the coral reefs.  “As (human) population increases, so does the harvest of resources from the sea,” states Teresa Turner of the University of the Virgin Islands (Turner, 10).  The dense population of this area greatly depends on the reef ecosystem to provide food commerce for survival.  However, due to the over-fishing of parrotfish and sea urchins, “the sanitary engineers of the reefs,” the coral reefs have experienced a build-up of algae and their much-needed contact with light has been robbed from them (Hinrichsen, 3).   Over-fishing and using destructive fishing practices like cyanide poisoning and blasting techniques has brought not only destruction to the reefs, but it also causes problems to human health, and wasteful, senseless death to unsuspecting sea life.  Todd Neville said of fishing in the reefs of Southeast Asia, “These fish are quite beautiful; but in collecting them, fishermen damage reefs to the point where they cannot recover.  When they inject cyanide into the reef, it anesthetizes and puts the fish to sleep for easy collection.  A fisherman will then break apart the reef to get at creatures that hide in the crevices of the reef” (Neville, 1999). 

Activities of these local fishermen and tourists have caused, perhaps irreversible damage to the unsuspecting corals.  Boats with their motors, deep bows, and heavy anchors, have broken and killed many parts of the reef that provide them with so much abundance.  Careless scuba-diving activities have also caused damage to the reefs (Solcomhouse, 3).  “Swimmers and divers in the Gulf of Aqaba (bounded by Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Israel, and Egypt), for example, have destroyed corals through trampling” reports the World Resources Institute (World Resources Institute, 1998).  As tourism has been a great means of economic profit, it has also developed into a very damaging way of life for the precious coral reefs.  It should be a prerequisite to take a “coral safety course and how to treat coral reefs nicely” before any tourist is allowed into the waters near the coral reefs.

The actions under local government policy have also contributed to degradation of the coral reef areas as well.  Poor land management, dredging, and logging have moved more silt and sediment into the reef areas, further clouding the waters and preventing sunlight from reaching the coral reefs and choking the reefs and eventually killing them (Neville, 1999).   “Untreated or improperly treated sewage” has been allowed to run-off into the ocean, further polluting the water that surrounds the reefs causing an overgrowth of algae and killing off coral polyps and harming the coral reefs (Threats, 1999).  Deforestation and other land management practices cause topsoil to be washed “down (the) rivers into coastal ecosystems.  Soil that settles on reefs smothers coral polyps and blocks out the sunlight needed for corals to live” (SeaWorld, 1).  If the local government continues to allow these types of practices, the coral reefs will have no chance for survival in future years.

Humans are at the top of the list of contributors to the coral reef problems.  In the Philippines, “much concern has been voiced about environmental damage caused from human activity,” says Helen Yap of the Marine Science Institute (Yap, 1997).  However, it has not been only human activity in the immediate area of the reefs that has brought on this change.  Climate change, water temperature change, and changing sea levels brought on by human activity throughout the entire globe have also negatively affected the coral reefs of not only Southeast Asia, but also the reefs in other areas of the world (Allan, 8).  If the water temperature goes up even one or two degrees in the areas where the reefs are located, “the coral polyps lose the symbiotic algae inside them, causing them to turn white and die” (Solcomhouse, 3).  Global warming caused by excessive emissions of CO2 gasses is at the heart of this climate problem and poses a worldwide threat to the viability of the coral reef ecosystem.  These seem to be changes that would present long-term problems instead of the immediate problems mentioned above, and as stated by Solcomhouse, “climate change will destroy the world’s great coral reefs within a century, according to a report by German and Australian marine scientists” (Solcomhouse, 2).   The frightening part about the changes within the coral reefs of Southeast Asia, is that what took 10,000 years to form, has only taken a mere 20 years to destroy.  It is important to be aware of this global problem in order to understand the effect that the activities of the global population have on the environment, and in this case, especially the environment of the coral reefs of Southeast Asia.

It is also important to understand the effects that the environmental degradation of the coral reefs has had on human consciousness.  As rapid ecological changes have occurred in the areas of the coral reefs of Southeast Asia, human practices have changed.  Community citizens, in the Philippines for example, have become more aware of the need to protect the coral reefs and as a result, have become more involved in the fight to save the reefs.  Local governmental agencies have developed new laws to govern tourist actions, and to regulate fishing practices.  These agencies have also designated certain areas of the coral reefs to be off limits to human activity.  As awareness and education grow, as actions are taken, and as more people learn about the true gift the coral reefs give to the world, the ecological condition of these coral reefs will change from degradation to regeneration.

 

As degradation of the marine environment surrounding the coral reefs of Southeast Asia continues, the corals become more susceptible to disease as well.  The warmer water increases possibility of disease and as the corals become stressed, disease sets in.  Coral bleaching is one of the main diseases that affect the corals in the reefs of Southeast Asia.  This is mainly due to warmer water conditions and pollution of surrounding waters.  As the coral polyps become stressed due to these conditions, the algae that nourishes them and gives them color is expelled, leaving the polyps weakened and white in color.  If the water conditions become stable within a short amount of time, the coral polyps can recover.  However, if the poor water conditions continue, the polyps will die.  Other diseases known to the corals of Southeast Asia are “white band disease (WBD), black band disease (BBD), bacterial infection, and shut down reaction” (Turner, 8).  WBD and BBD show similar effects on the affected coral by spreading in white or black bands then leaving the dead coral skeleton bleached as it progresses.  It is not known how these diseases are transmitted, but research into this is ongoing (Turner,8). 

 

In studying the negative changes that have occurred in the coral reef ecosystem, it has been noted that almost every negative effect has been human generated, so it will be necessary for humans to find and work out a solution to the problem. The first step to a solution, and one that has already been taken in Southeast Asia and other regions, is to increase awareness of the problem, so the people can see there is a need to do something before their marine food supplies run out.  Possible actions that can be taken by citizens in local areas surrounding the reefs are: 1) to volunteer for reef cleanup, 2) to find ways to dispose of sewer where it cannot reach and contaminate the marine waters, 3) to change land management practices, so that topsoil will not be washed down the rivers to the marine waters, 4) to create and enforce strict laws that would regulate fishing practices, 5) to stop cyanide and blast fishing, 6) to set aside as many coral reefs as possible to be marine parks that protect their ecosystems, and 7) to limit coastal development in areas where coral reefs are present.  On a more global scale, to help improve the long-term health of the coral reefs in Southeast Asia and other areas, we need to increase our own awareness in distant countries.  It is through our lack of awareness that we fail to be more involved in the fight against environmental degradation.  We need to learn to conserve energy and preserve that which exists around us.  A great awareness effort would be to join Reef Relief, which is “a non-profit membership organization dedicated to preserving and protecting living coral reef ecosystems through local, regional, and global efforts” (slocomhouse, 8).  Membership in such an organization would not only help us to understand the magnitude of the problem our coral reefs face, but it would also allow us to get involved and possibly help save the reefs.

 

Though the coral reefs of Southeast Asia have been in existence for at least the past 10,000 years, they have suffered great environmental damage over the past 20 years.  They have suffered from pollution, over-fishing and dangerous fishing practices, boating accidents, poor land management and coastal development, and pesticide and fertilizer run-off.  Their exposure to these things has brought on rapid and devastating environmental ecological change.  The intensity of this change has enormously affected the population of marine life living within the coral reefs as well as the lives of the corals themselves.  As the population of marine life dwindles in the coral reefs, the well-being and survival of the human population of Southeast Asia risks danger as well.  There have been measures taken to reverse the negative effects of the ecological change that has occurred within the coral reefs.  There have been rules and regulations placed in effect to regulate fishing practices and tourist activities.  Yet, still more measures need to be taken in order to undo what human activities have done to affect the balance of this delicate marine environment.  The human population on a global level needs to increase awareness of what they can do to help the coral reefs of Southeast Asia.  They can start from the local level, using community citizens and local governmental agencies to create laws and practices that will protect the reefs.  Citizens and tourists need to be educated about the value of the reefs.  They need to learn that their activities can also have a powerful effect on the well-being of the coral reef environment.  The coral reefs of Southeast Asia are beautiful natural wonders and deserve to be respected and nurtured.  They truly are the rainforests of the ocean, and it is so important to keep them healthy so they can maintain the vast amounts of sea life that depend on the reefs for survival.  For, it is the coral reefs of Southeast Asia and the world that bring balance to our global ecosystem.  Just as the rainforests of the land are necessary in maintaining proper balance in our atmosphere, the rainforests of the ocean are also necessary in maintaining proper balance in our marine environment.  In honor of the coral reefs of Southeast Asia and of the world, let us all do what we can to preserve them. 

Works Cited

Allan, .  “The Coral Reef Ecosystem.”  Course material for AOSS 171 Introduction to Global Change.  University of Michigan.  1996.  http://www.sprl.umich.edu/GCL/paper_to_html/coral.html

 

Coleman, Sally and Schectel, Jeffrey.  “Types of Coral Reefs.”  Welcome to the Coral Reefer.  http://www-personal.umich.edu/~jschecte/html/Crtypes.html

 

Coleman, Sally and Schectel, Jeffrey.  “Benefits of Coral Reefs.”  Welcome to the Coral Reefer.  http://www-personal.umich.edu/~jschecte/html/Crbenefits.html

 

Hinrichsen, Don.  “Coral Reefs in Crisis.”  People & the Planet. 1997.  http://www.oneworld.org/patp/vol6_2/hinrichsen.html

 

Lazaroff, Cynthia.  “The Coral Reef Crisis: Meeting the Planetary Challenge.”  http://pcrf.org/exhibit.html

 

National University.  “Ecological Revolutions Defined.”  2001.   http://www.online.nu.edu/re/NATU/GS420(R53-70)-230686/01/ecologicalrevolution.html

 

Neville, Todd M.  “The Formation and Types of Coral Reefs in Insular Southeast Asia and their Inhabitants.”  1999.  http://www.niu.edu/cseas/outreach/coral_reefs.htm 

 

Moss, Star. “Coral Reefs: A World of Their Own.”  Dekalb College.  1995  http://www.dc.peachnet.edu/~pgore/students/f95/starmoss/coral.htm#Theories%20of%20Formation

 

Reef Relief.  “All About Coral.”  http://www.reefrelief.org/main.html 

 

SeaWorld.  “Longevity and Causes of Death.”  Corals and Coral Reefs.  SeaWorld/Busch Gardens Animal Information Database.  http://www.seaworld.org / www.buschgardens.org  

 

Solcomhouse.  “Coral Reefs” http://www.solcomhouse.com/coralreef.htm

 

Talbot, Frank H.  “Coral Reefs and Biodiversity: What does management have to do with it?”  International Marin Science Newsleter, No. 75/76, 2nd semester, 1995.  http://www.aloha.net/~sos/Talbot.html

 

The Evergreen Project, Inc.  “Threats”.  1999.  http://mbgnet.mobot.org/salt/coral/threats.htm

 

The Evergreen Project, Inc.  “Why do so many fish live near coral reefs?”  1999.  http://mbgnet.mobot.org/salt/coral/indexfr.htm 

 

Turner, Teresa.  “An Introduction to Coral Reefs.”  Coral Reef Ecology Home Page.  http://manta.uvi.edu/coral.reefer

 

Unknown.  “What is a Coral Reef?”  Oil Spills at Sea:  Potential Impacts on Hawaii.  1992.  http://www.soest.hawaii.edu/SEAGRANT/import.html

 

World Resources Institute.  “Status of the World’s Coral Reefs: East Asia.” 1998.  http://www.wri.org/indictrs/reefasia.htm

 

Yap, Helen T.  “Coral Reefs in the Philippines.”  Marine Science Institute.  University of the Philippines.  Quezon City.  1997.  http://www.soest.hawaii.edu/SEAGRANT/Makai/april97/aprmakai.html